Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. Based on these partial report experiments, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. The first precise experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963) using the "partial report paradigm." Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is an example of sensory memory. Sensory memory holds information, derived from the senses, less than one second after an item is perceived. Normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of the memory. Finally, the retrieval of information from long-term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long-term memory. Also, the storage process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage, such as the hippocampus. The amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage.
Pain, for example, has been identified as a physical condition that impairs memory, and has been noted in animal models as well as chronic pain patients. The ways by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted. Memory is not a perfect processor, and is affected by many factors. Priming is the process of subliminally arousing specific responses from memory and shows that not all memory is consciously activated, whereas procedural memory is the slow and gradual learning of skills that often occurs without conscious attention to learning. An example of a non-declarative process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory, or a priming phenomenon. Non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information. Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory. Meanwhile, episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane. Semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning. Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory. ĭeclarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection of data. Finally, the function of long-term memory is to store through various categorical models or systems. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material. Information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor. The sensory processor allows information from the outside world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to various levels of focus and intent. Memory is often understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term (or working) memory, and long-term memory. Memory loss is usually described as forgetfulness or amnesia. If past events could not be remembered, it would be impossible for language, relationships, or personal identity to develop. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action.
Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.
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